Introduction
Human trafficking has risen from relative obscurity to become an internationally recognised societal concern in less than two decades, prompting a range of initiatives at the international, national and subnational levels. Yet, although the subject is gaining ever more attention worldwide, it remains elusive of accurate understanding. On one widely repeated estimate, human trafficking is “a multi-billion-dollar criminal industry that denies freedom to 20.9 million people around the world”, and it is sometimes described, not without debate, as “a form of modern slavery”.1 Trafficking takes place both within Bangladesh and across its borders. The coastal areas of Cox’s Bazar and Chittagong are used extensively by traffickers for trafficking by sea, and most of these sea routes lead towards Malaysia and Thailand. Traffickers often lure victims with false promises of a better life and attractive employment.2
Research methodology
This study employs a qualitative research design based on the analysis of secondary data. It relies on the existing literature alone to analyse and synthesise information on the research subject. A literature-based approach is appropriate because it allows a comprehensive understanding of theoretical positions, empirical findings and academic debates without the collection of primary data. Secondary data were obtained from academic journal articles, media reports, reports of reputable organisations and institutions, and reliable online resources, including Google Scholar, JSTOR, Scopus and the Web of Science.
Concept of human trafficking
Human trafficking is not new. In many of its historical manifestations it is intimately tied to slavery: in imperial Rome, for example, it has been estimated that between 30 and 40 per cent of the population consisted of slaves trafficked from regions such as Thrace, Gaul, Britain and Germany.3 Article 3(a) of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (the Palermo Protocol), supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, adopted in 2000 and in force since 25 December 2003, defines human trafficking as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons (the act) by means of the threat or use of force, coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability, or the giving of payments or benefits to a person having control over the victim (the means), for the purpose of exploitation.4 There are three basic typologies of human trafficking: sex trafficking, labour trafficking and a combination of the two. Sex trafficking is a broad term covering a wide variety of activities in which a trafficker uses force, deception or coercion to cause another person, in particular a minor under the age of 18, to engage in a commercial sex act. Labour trafficking, by contrast, is a series of acts that use force, deception or coercion to cause a person to provide labour or services. Trafficking in human beings is a cruel violation of human rights and has rightly been labelled a modern form of slavery. Its victims are mostly women and children, the weakest and most defenceless members of society.5 After the traffic in drugs and weapons, human trafficking is commonly described as the world’s third largest criminal enterprise. It has become one of the most lucrative criminal activities, with a sector of its own that includes related illegal activities such as money laundering, drug trafficking, document fraud and smuggling, and it could not exist and flourish to such an extent without corruption.6
Human trafficking and migration
In many countries, growing numbers of individuals, especially women, appear to see emigration as the only route out of a dreary life. The trafficking of human beings must therefore also be understood as a problem of labour migration. Choosing to migrate is a viable method of survival where there is no other prospect. At the same time, many industrialised countries have become aware that their own demographic patterns are bound to create a need for more foreign labour, not least because of skills shortages and the obvious economic and longer-term social security implications. Individual nations, and the European Union as a whole, will need to explore enhanced opportunities for people, especially women and girls, to migrate lawfully for work or training in countries of destination.7 Traffickers prey upon the most vulnerable and often desperate individuals and present them with opportunities that match their wants and desires: a job, a chance to study, an escape from war, or a path out of extreme poverty through the sale of an organ. Instead, these supposed prospects become nightmares of control, with traffickers using open violence, threats or other forms of exploitation. Not all trafficking, however, begins with deceit built on the victim’s own aspirations; many victims are simply seized and exploited. What trafficking cases share is that the victims, whether men, women or children, are controlled, abused and exploited, to their grave detriment.8
Victims’ responses to trafficking
Victims of human trafficking are very reluctant to come forward, because they feel that they have been victimised not only by a trafficker but also by a society or community that does not see them and cannot help them.9 Furthermore, victims fear for their own safety, partly because they may be dealing with several criminals or even a major organised crime ring, and they may also be concerned for the safety of their families.10 Survivors of trafficking are critical actors in all efforts to prevent trafficking and to adapt responses to the crime. The international community is only now beginning to work through the experiences of, and lessons learned from, survivors. All too frequently, the advocacy role of survivors in anti-trafficking work is confined to telling their story at conferences, and there is a danger that survivors are reduced to their story to feed an appetite for the sensational. At the same time, many survivors who have become anti-trafficking activists have specific ideas about how they might participate in the global response. Some work with the police to reach people who may be undergoing exploitation, while others warn their peers of the risks of trafficking. Survivors should be consulted in the development of national plans of action and in the evaluation of legislation. They can share their experience of traffickers and show that it pays to give survivors opportunities and a choice.11
Anti-trafficking policies and legislation
In 2000 the United Nations adopted the Palermo Protocol, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, and thereby began to recognise and make policy on human trafficking. It was the first instrument of worldwide reach to define human trafficking and to require States to prevent, suppress and punish trafficking in persons, especially women and children. The “three Ps”, a framework that also structures the United States Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, form the basic structure of the Protocol. Prevention means stopping trafficking from happening in the first place and includes public awareness campaigns, education and the tackling of root causes such as poverty and lack of education. Protection means helping and supporting victims of human trafficking. Prosecution aims at improving legal systems so that traffickers are held accountable; this includes the investigation, arrest, prosecution and conviction of traffickers, and legislation criminalising all forms of trafficking. In addition, a fourth “P”, partnership, serves as a supplementary means of achieving progress across the three Ps and of involving all segments of society in the effort against human trafficking.12
In Bangladesh, the Prevention and Suppression of Human Trafficking Act, 2012 governed the field for more than a decade. It has now been repealed and re-enacted as the Prevention and Suppression of Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling Act, 2026 (Act No. 55 of 2026), which was first promulgated as an Ordinance after the Advisory Council approved the draft on 27 November 2025. The 2026 Act is Bangladesh’s first cohesive statute to define and penalise human trafficking and migrant smuggling as distinct offences within a single legal framework. It permits a Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling Offence Suppression Tribunal to try, together with the trafficking charge, any connected offence where a joint trial is necessary in the interests of justice, and it allows investigators to proceed under the Money Laundering Prevention Act, 2012 against the proceeds of trafficking. It protects victims by providing that a trafficked person is not to be held liable on any criminal charge under the Act for illegal entry into or unlawful stay in a destination or transit State, or for the possession of fraudulent travel or identity documents, where these were a direct consequence of the trafficking, and it prescribes rigorous imprisonment of three to seven years for threatening or intimidating a victim or witness and of two to five years for pressuring a victim or witness into a compromise.13
Rehabilitation of victims, the role of NGOs and their challenges
Confronting human trafficking is invariably complex; nonetheless, initiatives frequently remain confined to particular places and periods. When the actors involved do not collaborate effectively, victims encounter delays in obtaining support, heightened risks of re-victimisation and considerable obstacles to justice and recovery. If trafficking operates across borders, the response must be similarly coordinated. The next generation of anti-trafficking strategies must emphasise efficient cross-border referral systems, prompt information sharing and institutionalised multi-agency cooperation that places the needs of victims above administrative boundaries. Training for frontline practitioners is crucial, since early identification can determine whether timely protection is provided or further victimisation occurs.14 Additional resources are essential for the organisations currently assisting trafficking victims, as well as for those likely to encounter potential victims, so that they can address the many urgent needs of people recovering from these experiences. At the very least, resources must cover immediate and secure housing and long-term solutions, public benefits, legal support, substance abuse counselling, vocational training and help in securing employment in the country of origin, and these should be integrated into awareness and educational initiatives. The prominent non-governmental organisations addressing trafficking in Bangladesh are described below.
A. Bangladesh National Women Lawyers’ Association
The Bangladesh National Women Lawyers’ Association (BNWLA) was founded in 1979. Its primary objective is to secure equitable opportunities and rights for all women and children in the country. BNWLA has long been engaged in women’s rights initiatives and activism in Bangladesh, focusing on advocacy and legal action to promote the rule of law and gender parity.15 It offers free legal representation, advice and assistance to victims and survivors of domestic violence, as well as in matters of human trafficking, family disputes and other violations of human rights.16
B. Bangladesh Legal Aid and Services Trust
The Bangladesh Legal Aid and Services Trust (BLAST) was founded in 1993 to offer free legal assistance to the poor. It is governed by a Board of Trustees comprising eminent jurists, lawyers, professionals and former judges of the Supreme Court of Bangladesh. From the outset, BLAST was conceived to promote local engagement and decentralised governance, with the elected leaders of each district Bar Association heading its district Management Committees and members of civil society sitting on its Advisory Committees.17 It also provides legal advice, courtroom representation and systemic advocacy to secure justice for survivors of trafficking.
C. Young Power in Social Action
In order to foster global recognition of the youth community and to promote the involvement of young people in development, the United Nations General Assembly, by resolution 34/151 of 17 December 1979, designated 1985 as International Youth Year under the theme “Participation, Development, Peace”. A major effort followed to involve young people in social development projects, including in Bangladesh. Under that theme, the founder General Secretary and Chief Executive, Md. Arifur Rahman, organised and mobilised the local youth community to create a youth development organisation in Sitakund, a sub-district of Chattogram. On 20 May 1985 the youth group “Young Power” was founded; it subsequently evolved into the social development organisation Young Power in Social Action (YPSA) and began its involvement in the development process.18 It is currently engaged extensively in areas including Cox’s Bazar, implementing counter-trafficking initiatives, community education and direct assistance to victims.
D. Rights Jessore
Rights Jessore is a prominent human rights and development organisation founded in 1991 by a group of philanthropic individuals from various professions in Jashore, Bangladesh. Since its inception it has been committed to protecting and promoting human rights, particularly those of marginalised women, children, young people, migrants, trafficking survivors and other vulnerable groups. Rights Jessore advocates, networks, builds capacity, mobilises communities and reports human rights abuses in order to create an environment conducive to justice, equality and inclusive development. Over the last three decades it has developed into a specialised organisation with strong expertise in counter-trafficking, safe migration, child protection, gender equality, access to justice, youth empowerment and climate resilience. It uses a rights-based, survivor-centred and community-driven approach to empower vulnerable groups while strengthening institutional accountability and governance. Through strategic alliances and pioneering initiatives, Rights Jessore has directly and indirectly reached millions of people throughout Bangladesh, advancing human rights advocacy, social equity and sustainable development.19
E. Justice and Care
Justice and Care is an international non-profit organisation committed to eradicating modern slavery and human trafficking. It operates in the United Kingdom, Bangladesh, Romania and the United States, collaborating with law enforcement agencies, governments and communities to dismantle criminal networks, safeguard at-risk individuals and rehabilitate survivors.20
F. Centre for Women and Children Studies
The Centre for Women and Children Studies (CWCS) is an organisation dedicated to the rights of women and children that promotes, finances and advocates interdisciplinary basic and applied research aimed at the socio-economic advancement of women, men and children. The Centre was founded in April 1994 as an advocacy group to influence policymakers and decision-makers, and it remains primarily a policy advocacy body.21 It also operates victim assistance kiosks and provides temporary housing, medical treatment and counselling services for survivors.
G. International Organization for Migration, Bangladesh
The International Organization for Migration (IOM), the UN migration agency, works closely with the national government and many other stakeholders in Bangladesh. Bangladesh became a Member State of IOM in 1990, and IOM established its country office in 1998, marking the start of its continuous operational presence in the country. IOM Bangladesh implements a large-scale programme addressing both humanitarian and development objectives. Its work focuses on migration management, humanitarian assistance, border management, climate action, disaster risk reduction and community resilience, while protecting migrants and displaced people throughout. These initiatives span the entire migration cycle, from preparation and transit to reintegration, and combine direct service provision with institutional support and policy development.22
H. Role of the United Nations
The United Nations oversees specialised funds such as the United Nations Voluntary Trust Fund for Victims of Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, established by the General Assembly in 2010 under the Global Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons and managed by the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), which allocates grants to local organisations providing shelter, medical assistance and psychological support to survivors. The Palermo Protocol requires States parties to consider measures for the physical, psychological and social recovery of victims, and the UN system has consistently emphasised the principles of non-punishment and confidentiality. In 2007 the Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking in Persons (ICAT) was established pursuant to a General Assembly resolution to promote a holistic strategy for the prevention and eradication of human trafficking, including the protection of and assistance to victims. As of July 2021, ICAT comprised 30 entities that draw on their distinct mandates and expertise to ensure that all trafficked persons, whether women, men, girls or boys subjected to sexual or labour exploitation, child begging, forced criminality, organ removal or other forms of abuse, obtain protection. Through ICAT, the United Nations demonstrates and advocates a comprehensive strategy against trafficking that offers protection and support to victims, who are not merely pieces of evidence in a criminal case but human beings. The Protocol requires that victims have the possibility of obtaining compensation and that States take into account the age, gender and special needs of victims, in particular children, including appropriate housing, education and care, when providing assistance and protection. Numerous United Nations entities and other ICAT members focus on different facets of empowering trafficked persons and assisting States in this endeavour.23 UN guidance underlines that the inclusion of survivor leaders is essential to the development of inclusive policies, in which support means more than rescue and extends to sustainable economic autonomy, skills development and housing.
Findings of the study
Finding one: Bangladesh has built a stronger architecture of institutional protection. The study reveals that Bangladesh has moved away from a purely law enforcement-centred strategy. The establishment and development of the National Referral Mechanism (NRM), victim identification guidelines and the National Plan of Action (NPA) indicate a growing institutional recognition that victims deserve coordinated care. This is a fundamental basis for a sustainable rehabilitation system.24
Finding two: the NRM has the potential to be transformative but needs stronger statutory and financial institutionalisation. The NRM framework, launched in May 2024 and followed by a nationwide digital referral platform in October 2025, provides an integrated service pathway, but the documentary evidence shows that its effectiveness depends on institutional capacity, service availability, trained focal points, digital accessibility and sustainable funding. The statutory Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling Prevention Fund, successor to the Human Trafficking Prevention Fund under the 2012 Act, should be transparently operationalised and linked to demonstrable victim-support results.25
Finding three: rehabilitation remains patchy and service-specific. Different agencies provide different parts of the care, and victims may fall into the gaps between shelter, counselling, legal aid, livelihood support and follow-up. Referral systems work only if the service referred to can actually respond. Referral should be followed by case management and outcome monitoring.26
Finding four: adult male victims need clear acknowledgement and services. The material examined indicates that adult male victims, particularly those subjected to forced labour and exploitation abroad, may face difficulties in being recognised and in finding shelter. A gender-responsive system must not treat victim protection as services for women and children alone. Separate or adaptable facilities should be established for men, ensuring safety and anonymity.27
Finding five: recruitment governance is an anti-trafficking intervention. The research demonstrates a clear policy link between recruitment practices and vulnerability to trafficking. High recruitment fees and debt can restrict a worker’s ability to leave abusive employment. Regulation of recruiting agencies and sub-agents, transparent fees, verifiable contracts and accessible grievance procedures should therefore be treated as prevention measures within the anti-trafficking framework.28
Finding six: survivor participation must be systemic, not symbolic. Survivors are often asked to tell their stories, but sustained engagement requires established procedures through which survivor advocates can influence legislation, service standards, awareness strategies and programme evaluation. Participation by survivors should be voluntary, discreet and free from exploitation.29
Finding seven: rehabilitation requires long-term follow-up. A short stay in a shelter cannot by itself demonstrate rehabilitation. The unit of assessment is the survivor’s longer-term trajectory. Follow-up should cover housing stability, work or education, access to health services, safety, family ties, legal outcomes and the risk of re-trafficking, provided that informed consent and privacy safeguards are in place.30
Recommendations
1. The National Referral Mechanism should be recognised in law. The NRM should be expressly recognised in legislation and supported by rules establishing minimum service standards, referral timelines, the roles of points of contact and procedures for government-NGO cooperation. The NRM should be understood as a right to protection for victims, not as a voluntary administrative programme.31
2. A Victim Rehabilitation and Compensation Fund should be created. There is a need for a dedicated fund, distinct in purpose from the existing statutory prevention fund, to finance emergency aid, shelter, medical treatment, counselling, legal services, livelihood support, education, relocation and compensation. Funding sources may include annual budget allocations, proceeds of confiscation in trafficking cases where legally permissible, fines, grants and other lawful sources. Disbursement should be transparent and open to independent audit.32
3. Specialised shelters should be built in trafficking-prone areas. Bangladesh should build or commission dedicated safe homes in the major divisions and in high-risk districts. Adequate arrangements should be made according to age, gender and security needs. Safe accommodation should be available for adult men, and appropriate help should be given to foreign victims while their legal and repatriation status is being determined.33
4. Trauma-informed justice should be ensured. Police, prosecutors, judges, lawyers and support workers should receive specialised training. Video testimony, screens and other protective arrangements should be used wherever legally available and suitable. Victims should not be unnecessarily exposed to accused traffickers or made to repeat their story several times.34
5. Compensation and restitution should be improved. Victims should be given clear information on compensation and restitution. Courts and prosecutors should treat compensation as part of the judicial process. A State-supported fund can give interim help where proceedings are protracted or where the trafficker lacks the means to pay.35
6. Recruitment and sub-agents should be regulated. All recruitment intermediaries should be registered, licensed or otherwise made legally accountable. Digital registration should be connected to complaint data and enforcement action, and recruitment fees and related costs must be clearly stated and progressively shifted away from workers in line with fair recruitment standards.36
7. Protocols for cross-border continuity of care should be created. Bangladesh should establish bilateral or regional procedures for victim identification, emergency referral, safe repatriation, preservation of evidence and continuity of rehabilitation. Embassies and labour missions should identify victim-protection priority areas.37
8. A national integrated anti-trafficking data system should be built. A secure national data platform should collect anonymised data on identification, referral, services, prosecution, compensation and reintegration outcomes. The system should employ uniform definitions and indicators and should respect privacy and data-protection safeguards.38
9. Survivor participation should be institutionalised. The establishment of a Survivor Advisory Council should be part of the national anti-trafficking governance system. Its functions should include advising on legislation, service standards, training materials, awareness campaigns and annual performance evaluation.
10. A measurable rehabilitation framework should be adopted. Government and NGOs need indicators that measure outcomes as well as outputs. Examples include the percentage of identified victims provided with services within 24 hours, the percentage given individual care plans, the percentage who access legal assistance, the percentage who receive livelihood support, the average time to referral, the percentage in safe housing after six months, and reported re-trafficking rates where measurable.39
Proposed legislative framework
This section suggests a model legislative chapter that could be inserted into the existing trafficking legislation in Bangladesh or implemented by appropriate amendment and rules. It is an academic exercise and not a statement that these provisions have been adopted. The aim is to transform rehabilitation from a policy ideal into a legally enforceable protective system.40
Proposed section 1: Right to protection and rehabilitation. All individuals who can reasonably be considered potential victims of trafficking should be entitled to immediate protection and assistance according to their needs, irrespective of nationality, immigration status, gender, age, disability, religion, socio-economic status or willingness to cooperate in criminal proceedings. Assistance should be provided without discrimination and should not depend on the conviction of a trafficker.41
Proposed section 2: Non-punishment and non-penalisation. A trafficking victim should not be prosecuted, detained or otherwise penalised for acts committed as a direct consequence of being trafficked, subject to safeguards against misuse of the provision. This should include adequate protection in respect of immigration or document-related offences where the offence was a direct consequence of the trafficking.42
Proposed section 3: Continuing protection order. Once a victim is identified, the competent authority must be empowered to issue an immediate protection order providing safe shelter, medical examination, psychosocial support, legal information, emergency financial aid and protection from contact with suspected traffickers. The order should be valid for a fixed initial term and renewable on a reassessment of needs.43
Proposed section 4: Individual rehabilitation plan. Each victim should be provided with an individual rehabilitation plan developed by a trained case manager. The plan should specify housing, health, psychological, legal, educational, livelihood, family and security needs. The victim should participate as fully as possible in decisions affecting the plan.44
Proposed section 5: National Referral Mechanism. A statutory basis for the NRM should be created. All police stations, border posts, airports, seaports, hospitals, labour offices, embassies and other specified authorities that come into contact with a potential victim should be under a duty to activate the referral procedure. Referrals should be made directly to eligible NGOs and service providers without excessive bureaucratic obstacles.45
Proposed section 6: Minimum standards for shelters. The Government should prescribe basic requirements for security, privacy, food, hygiene, access to medical care, counselling, legal help, communication, education, freedom of movement consistent with safety, child safeguarding and complaints procedures. Independent monitoring should be mandatory.46
Proposed section 7: Fund for the rehabilitation and compensation of victims. A government fund for the rehabilitation and compensation of victims should be created or, where the existing statutory fund is used, expressly extended to that purpose. The Act should provide for governance, eligible expenditure, emergency disbursement, audit, public reporting and procedures for direct support to victims. The fund should not substitute for the regular budgetary obligations of the State.47
Proposed section 8: Compensation and restitution. Subject to due process and the applicable legislation, courts should have the power, or be obliged, to consider compensation for physical and psychological injury, unpaid wages, medical expenses, rehabilitation costs and other proven losses. The State fund should provide interim assistance where immediate needs cannot await a final determination.48
Proposed section 9: Legal representation. Victims should have access to expert legal aid from the very beginning. The legal aid system needs specialist lawyers skilled in trafficking, migration and trauma-informed practice. NGOs that meet the prescribed conditions may be eligible to join the service network.49
Proposed section 10: Protection of witnesses and survivors. The Act should offer effective methods of protection, such as confidential addresses, risk assessment, police protection, protected and remote testimony where appropriate, separate waiting rooms and steps to prevent intimidation. Stronger sanctions should be imposed for threatening or coercing a victim or witness of trafficking.50
Proposed section 11: Cross-border referral and return. Where the victim is located outside Bangladesh, the responsible authority should liaise with the relevant embassy, the destination-country authorities and service providers. Repatriation should be safe, voluntary where appropriate, informed and linked to a receiving service provider in Bangladesh. Foreign victims in Bangladesh should receive equal emergency protection while their status is being determined.51
Proposed section 12: Prevention in recruitment. The law should expressly mandate cooperation between anti-trafficking and migration authorities. Recruitment agencies and sub-agents must keep clear records of fees, contracts, employers and staff. Administrative and criminal sanctions should apply where the statutory elements of facilitating trafficking through deceptive recruitment are met.52
Proposed section 13: Survivor Advisory Council. A Survivor Advisory Council should be established with confidentiality and well-being protections. Members should be recruited through a transparent procedure and involved in legislative review, service standards, awareness efforts and monitoring. Participation should never be compulsory.53
Proposed section 14: Data protection. Personal information about victims should be collected only in accordance with the law and only to the extent necessary for the purpose of collection. Access should be regulated, information sharing should follow defined standards, and the publication of identifiable survivor information should be prohibited without informed consent, except where legally necessary for emergency protection.54
Proposed section 15: Independent monitoring and annual report. The relevant national authority should publish an annual report with anonymised information on victim identification, referral, services, prosecutions, convictions, compensation, rehabilitation and re-trafficking indicators. There should be an impartial monitoring body with the power to inspect shelters and review complaints.55
Proposed section 16: Orders for rehabilitation and long-term care. Courts should have the power to order appropriate rehabilitation measures in suitable cases, including medical treatment, counselling, education, livelihood support or protective relocation. Long-term help should be available as needed, without an artificial short-term limit.56
Proposed section 17: Institutional accountability. The Act should clearly define the responsibilities of the Ministry of Home Affairs, the police, the prosecution, the courts, the immigration authorities, social welfare agencies, women and children’s affairs authorities, labour institutions, local government, diplomatic missions and the NGOs affiliated to the system. Failure to discharge statutory duties should be subject to administrative review and, where appropriate, disciplinary or legal action.57
Conclusion
Human trafficking is an offence that affects individuals, groups and the communities in which it takes place. It is a worldwide and intricate problem. Its causes include the uneven economic development of nations; economic and social problems such as widespread unemployment and poverty in many countries of origin, alongside inequality, discrimination and gender-based violence; prevailing market dynamics; patriarchal structures in both source and destination countries; demand factors, including the promotion of sex tourism globally; and prevailing male attitudes. All of these must be scrutinised and addressed. There can be no durable solution without a systematic confrontation of the structural bases of this criminal enterprise, namely the global distribution of employment, resources and wealth. The task is not only to dismantle criminal organisations; it is also, as Victim Support Europe has put it, about “recognising the humanity of every victim, ensuring no one is left invisible”.58 A comprehensive strategy on the part of society, beginning with individual welfare policies, is needed to address these evolving criminal trends and their consequences for people. The World Day against Trafficking in Persons, observed each year on 30 July, is a moment to take stock of progress and to remember the work that remains to be done. The real measure of success should be not how well trafficking networks are dismantled but how well every victim is identified, protected and supported in rebuilding his or her life.
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Footnotes
1. Jennifer M. Chacón, Human Trafficking, Immigration Regulation, and Subfederal Criminalization, 20 New Crim. L. Rev. 96 (2017), https://doi.org/10.1525/nclr.2017.20.1.96.
2. Young Power in Social Action, YPSA-BCTIP (Bangladesh Counter Trafficking-in-Persons) Program, https://ypsa.org/ypsa-bctip-bangladesh-counter-trafficking-in-persons-program/ (last visited Oct. 18, 2026).
3. Stacey Diane A. Litam, Human Sex Trafficking in America: What Counselors Need to Know, 7 Prof. Counselor 45, 46 (2017), https://doi.org/10.15241/sdal.7.1.45 (citing Vanessa Collingridge, Boudica: The Life and Legends of Britain’s Warrior Queen (2006)).
4. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime art. 3(a), Nov. 15, 2000, 2237 U.N.T.S. 319 [hereinafter Trafficking Protocol]; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols Thereto (2004), https://www.unodc.org/documents/treaties/UNTOC/Publications/TOC%20Convention/TOCebook-e.pdf.
5. Geri L. Dimas, Renata A. Konrad, Kayse Lee Maass & Andrew C. Trapp, Operations Research and Analytics to Combat Human Trafficking: A Systematic Review of Academic Literature, 17 PLoS ONE e0273708 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273708.
6. Helga Konrad, Migration and Trafficking in Human Beings, 77 Die Friedens-Warte 43 (2002).
7. Konrad, supra note 6.
8. Silke Albert, Survivors Can Play a Key Role in Combating Human Trafficking, UN Chronicle (July 29, 2021), https://www.un.org/en/un-chronicle/survivors-can-play-key-role-combating-human-trafficking.
9. T.K. Logan, Robert Walker & Gretchen Hunt, Understanding Human Trafficking in the United States, 10 Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 3 (2009), https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838008327262.
10. Logan, Walker & Hunt, supra note 9.
11. Albert, supra note 8.
12. Katharine Bryant & Todd Landman, Combatting Human Trafficking since Palermo: What Do We Know about What Works?, 6 J. Hum. Trafficking 119 (2020), https://doi.org/10.1080/23322705.2020.1690097; Trafficking Protocol, supra note 4, arts. 2, 9; Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, Pub. L. No. 106-386, div. A, 114 Stat. 1464.
13. The Prevention and Suppression of Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling Act, 2026, Act No. 55 of 2026, §§ 23, 24, 32(2), 38(4), 54(1), 64, 65 (Bangl.), https://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-1684.html (repealing the Prevention and Suppression of Human Trafficking Act, 2012, Act No. 3 of 2012, and the Prevention and Suppression of Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling Ordinance, 2026, Ordinance No. 5 of 2026); Justice & Care, Bangladesh Approves Landmark Anti-Trafficking Law (Dec. 17, 2025), https://justiceandcare.org/news/bangladesh-landmark-anti-trafficking-law-justice-and-care/; Mohammad Jamil Khan, Human Trafficking: New Law Drafted as 95% of Cases End in Acquittal, The Daily Star (Nov. 29, 2025), https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/human-trafficking-new-law-drafted-95-cases-end-acquittal-4046901.
14. Paula Peralta Agustí, Ensuring Victims Remain at the Centre of Response amid Changing Trafficking Dynamics, Victim Support Europe, https://victim-support.eu/opinon/ensuring-victims-remain-at-the-centre-of-response-amid-changing-trafficking-dynamics/ (last visited Sept. 28, 2026).
15. Cynthia Farid, New Paths to Justice: A Tale of Social Justice Lawyering in Bangladesh, 31 Wis. Int’l L.J. 421 (2013), https://repository.law.wisc.edu/s/uwlaw/item/29330.
16. Ariful Islam, Cannot Afford a Lawyer? Where to Turn for Free Legal Aid in Bangladesh, The Business Standard (Dec. 24, 2025), https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/cannot-afford-lawyer-where-turn-free-legal-aid-bangladesh-1317031.
17. Bangladesh Legal Aid and Services Trust, Our Story, https://blast.org.bd/ourstory/ (last visited Oct. 18, 2026).
18. Young Power in Social Action, About Us, https://ypsa.org/about-us/ (last visited Oct. 18, 2026); G.A. Res. 34/151, International Youth Year: Participation, Development, Peace (Dec. 17, 1979).
19. Rights Jessore, About, https://rightsjessore.org/about (last visited Oct. 18, 2026).
20. Justice & Care, What We Do, https://justiceandcare.org/what-we-do/ (last visited Oct. 18, 2026).
21. Centre for Women and Children Studies, organisational profile, www.cwcsbd.org.
22. International Organization for Migration, IOM Bangladesh, https://bangladesh.iom.int/iom-bangladesh (last visited Oct. 18, 2026).
23. Albert, supra note 8; G.A. Res. 64/293, United Nations Global Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons (July 30, 2010); Trafficking Protocol, supra note 4, art. 6(3), (4), (6).
24. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, National Plan of Action to Address Human Trafficking and Smuggling of Migrants 2026–2030 (final draft, June 23, 2026).
25. Justice & Care, Bangladesh’s National Referral Mechanism Launched in Partnership with Justice & Care (Oct. 13, 2025), https://justiceandcare.org/news/bangladeshs-national-referral-mechanism-launched-in-partnership-with-justice-care/; National Referral Mechanism Launched to Protect Human Trafficking Victims, The Business Standard (May 21, 2024), https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/national-referral-mechanism-launched-protect-human-trafficking-victims-856961; Act No. 55 of 2026, supra note 13, § 59.
26. U.S. Department of State, 2024 Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh (2024), https://2021-2025.state.gov/reports/2024-trafficking-in-persons-report/bangladesh/.
27. National Referral Mechanism Launched to Protect Human Trafficking Victims, supra note 25; U.S. Department of State, 2025 Trafficking in Persons Report: Bangladesh (2025), https://www.state.gov/reports/2025-trafficking-in-persons-report/bangladesh/.
28. Ministry of Home Affairs, supra note 24, at 18.
29. National Referral Mechanism Launched to Protect Human Trafficking Victims, supra note 25.
30. Ministry of Home Affairs, supra note 24, at 18.
31. Ministry of Home Affairs, Public Security Division, Government of Bangladesh, Bangladesh National Referral Mechanism to Protect and Assist Victims of Human Trafficking (June 20, 2024), https://mhapsd.gov.bd/pages/publications/bangladesh-national-referral-mechanism-to-protect-and-assist-victims-of-human-trafficking-e4bda6-69403196c4774958d7b451fb.
32. Ministry of Home Affairs, Public Security Division, supra note 31; Act No. 55 of 2026, supra note 13, §§ 57, 59.
33. Justice & Care, Bangladesh Approves Landmark Anti-Trafficking Law, supra note 13.
34. Justice & Care, Bangladesh Approves Landmark Anti-Trafficking Law, supra note 13.
35. OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, National Referral Mechanisms: Joining Efforts to Protect the Rights of Trafficked Persons: A Practical Handbook (2d ed. 2022), https://odihr.osce.org/odihr/NRM-handbook.
36. OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, supra note 35.
37. Mechanism Launched to Protect Human Trafficking Victims, The Financial Express (May 22, 2024), https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/national/mechanism-launched-to-protect-human-trafficking-victims.
38. Mechanism Launched to Protect Human Trafficking Victims, supra note 37.
39. Nilima Jahan, Crime Victims Compensation Act: A Law That Never Saw the Light, The Daily Star (Nov. 24, 2023), https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/crime-victims-compensation-act-law-never-saw-the-light-3478161.
40. Polaris, Policy & Legislation, https://polarisproject.org/policy-and-legislation/ (last visited Oct. 2, 2026).
41. Polaris, supra note 40; Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking: Commentary, U.N. Doc. HR/PUB/10/2 (2010) [hereinafter OHCHR Commentary].
42. BDLex, Legal Framework on Trafficking in Bangladesh, LinkedIn (Apr. 18, 2024), https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/legal-framework-trafficking-bangladesh-bdlex-manupatra-ued6c/ (last visited Oct. 2, 2026); Act No. 55 of 2026, supra note 13, § 54(1).
43. BDLex, supra note 42.
44. Revisiting the Law and Governance of Trafficking, Forced Labor and Modern Slavery pt. IV (Prabha Kotiswaran ed., 2017), https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316675809.
45. Revisiting the Law and Governance of Trafficking, Forced Labor and Modern Slavery, supra note 44, pt. IV.
46. Revisiting the Law and Governance of Trafficking, Forced Labor and Modern Slavery, supra note 44, pt. IV.
47. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Combating Human Trafficking in Asia: A Resource Guide to International and Regional Legal Instruments, Political Commitments and Recommended Practices, U.N. Doc. ST/ESCAP/2293 (2003); Act No. 55 of 2026, supra note 13, §§ 57, 59.
48. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, supra note 47.
49. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, supra note 47.
50. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2016, annex II (The Definition of Trafficking in Persons and the Mandate for the Global Report) (2016), https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/Annex_II_-_Definition_and_mandate.pdf; United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime art. 24, Nov. 15, 2000, 2225 U.N.T.S. 209.
51. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, supra note 50; Trafficking Protocol, supra note 4, art. 8.
52. Fakhrul Islam, Human Trafficking Law Enforcement over the Victims and Offenders: The Perspective of Anti-trafficking Stakeholders, in Exploring Human Trafficking Pathways and Narratives of Desistance 79 (Sean Byrne ed., 2025), https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003664598-5.
53. Islam, supra note 52.
54. Islam, supra note 52.
55. OHCHR Commentary, supra note 41.
56. OHCHR Commentary, supra note 41.
57. Sandie Morgan & Dave Stachowiak, 203 – The 5th P: Policy, Ending Human Trafficking (podcast), https://endinghumantrafficking.org/203/ (last visited Oct. 2, 2026).
58. Peralta Agustí, supra note 14.