INTRODUCTION
“The law must be stable, but it must not stand still.” – Roscoe Pound
For years, the existing Indian legal system has relied on the Indian Penal Code (IPC), the Indian Evidence Act (IEA), and the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC). While these laws have been the backbone of justice, they often fall short of addressing the challenges of modern India. A new chapter has begun with the introduction of updated criminal laws. The journey started in 2020 with the creation of the Committee for Reforms in Criminal Laws (CRCL), led by Prof. (Dr.) Ranbir Singh. The newly proposed laws, named Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam (BSA), and Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), aimed to replace these outdated laws with frameworks better suited to 21st-century India.
The Indian criminal justice system has evolved over various historical periods, from the Vedic age to the present day. During the Vedic era, principles based on Rig Vedic teachings guided punishments and upheld order through the concept of Dharma. Later, during the Delhi Sultanate, criminal laws were shaped by texts like Smriti and the application of Shariat law. In the Mughal period, the Mughals established the Mahakuma-e-Adalat, a department handling criminal and civil cases under Islamic law. However, this system faced challenges, such as a lack of separation between judicial and executive powers, inconsistent enforcement of laws, and corruption. The Colonial era marked a significant shift driven by the East India Company (EIC). This period introduced formal court systems, including establishing the High Court, and laid the groundwork for codified laws in the 1860s.
The recently approved criminal law reforms reflect a move to replace outdated colonial-era laws designed to control rather than deliver justice. Many provisions of the old system had become irrelevant, necessitating these changes. These revised acts, endorsed by the Standing Committee and passed by both houses of Parliament, received presidential approval on December 25, 2023, signalling a step forward in modernizing the Indian legal framework.
The proposed criminal law reforms have raised concerns and sparked debates about their potential challenges, consequences, and objections. One key area of concern is the proposed increase in police custody duration under the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita. The extension of custody from 15 days to 60 or 90 days, depending on the severity of the offence, raises questions about balancing law enforcement needs with the protection of individual rights and freedoms.
The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita introduces a range of broadly defined offences, especially those related to national security. Although the term ‘sedition’ has been removed, it has been replaced1 with the phrase “Acts endangering sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India,” which remains vague. This raises concerns about the potential for over-criminalization. Offences like ‘organized crime’2 and ‘terrorist acts’3 are also broadly defined, and despite efforts to clarify these terms, questions remain about how they might be misused and affect individuals. Other challenges include high vacancy rates in the judiciary, case overload, and the need for better infrastructure and training for forensic experts and those involved in audio-video recording of statements. Section 57 of the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam recognizes electronic records as primary evidence, and the Act also allows for the electronic presentation of oral evidence, aligning with the ongoing digital transformation.
The reforms also aim to streamline procedures, such as mandatory audio-video recording of searches and seizures. However, the success of these changes depends on overcoming deep-rooted structural barriers. A comprehensive approach is needed to achieve the intended benefits, focusing on systemic reforms, infrastructure upgrades, and proper training.
These new laws were created as a result of socio-political factors. Demand for justice that prioritizes victims, the need for tech regulations due to the digital revolution, and evolving societal values played key roles. Additionally, there were pressures such as judicial activism highlighting inefficiencies and international obligations, as well as diverse opinions from judges. While they acknowledged the potential for improvement, they also emphasized the importance of understanding and implementation. It has also been pointed out that justice has been delivered slowly in India due to several pending court cases. Therefore, there is a need to transition towards a modern legal system.
Research Methodology and Highlights
The research methodology for examining the 2024 criminal law reforms can integrate action research, doctrinal research, and a historical approach for a comprehensive analysis. Action research evaluates the practical implementation of reforms and their impact on victims and communities, while doctrinal research analyzes legal texts and precedents to understand their structure and implications. The historical approach traces the evolution of criminal laws, highlighting their colonial origins and contextualizing the need for change. These methods comprehensively understand the objectives, challenges, and societal impact pertaining the reforms.
CRITICAL INTERSECTION OF CRIMINAL LAWS AND CONSTITUTION
The law is the foundation of society, but it is also a living, evolving entity that must grow and adapt to the needs of the people. The intersection of criminal laws and the constitution is a critical aspect of legal system of the country, as it ensures that criminal laws align with the fundamental rights and principles enshrined in the constitution. In India, this relationship is governed by the Constitution of India, which provides the framework within which criminal laws must operate, balancing law enforcement with the protection of individual rights.4 A well-defined connection between constitutional and criminal law is essential in a democracy, preventing the abuse of power and safeguarding citizens’ freedoms.
A. Fundamental Rights
The Constitution guarantees fundamental rights5 such as the right to life and personal liberty (Article 21), the right to equality (Article 14), and the right against self-incrimination (Article 20). Criminal laws must respect these rights and cannot infringe upon them unjustly. For example, a law that leads to arbitrary detention or punishment could be challenged as unconstitutional.
B. Due Process of Law
Article 21 of the Constitution guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, but this right is subject to ‘due process of law.’ Any deprivation of liberty must follow a fair, transparent, and legal process.6 Criminal laws, therefore, need to ensure that individuals are not subjected to arbitrary arrest or detention.
C. Preventive Detention
The Constitution allows for preventive detention under certain circumstances (Article 22), but it imposes strict limits on how long someone can be detained without trial and ensures they have the right to be informed of the reasons for their detention. Criminal laws must, therefore, respect these constitutional limits when dealing with issues of preventive detention.
D. Separation of Powers
The Constitution establishes a separation of powers between the executive, legislature, and judiciary7. This principle ensures that criminal laws are created by the legislature, enforced by the executive, and interpreted by the judiciary. Any law that crosses this boundary or undermines judicial independence can be challenged on constitutional grounds.
E. Equality Before Law
Criminal laws must apply equally to all individuals, irrespective of their background or status, Das guaranteed by Article 14. Discriminatory criminal laws targeting specific groups or individuals based on arbitrary classifications can be declared unconstitutional.
F. Judicial Review
The Constitution allows the judiciary to review the constitutionality of laws. Criminal laws inconsistent with constitutional provisions can be challenged in court and potentially struck down. This ensures that criminal laws do not violate fundamental rights or constitutional principles.8
In summary, the intersection of criminal laws and the Constitution ensures that criminal justice is fair, just, and in line with the rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution. Laws must balance the need for law enforcement with the protection of individual rights, and any law or practice that violates constitutional principles can be challenged in the courts.
SOCIO-LEGAL IMPACT OF THE CRIMINAL LAW REFORMS 2024
The impact of a new criminal law on society can vary widely based on its specific provisions, enforcement mechanisms, and alignment with societal values and norms. However, several key effects emerge when viewed through the lens of modernization. One significant benefit is the potential for enhanced, faster, and fairer justice. Modern criminal laws often prioritize principles of fairness and equality, ensuring that justice is delivered efficiently and equitably.9 For example, the new act allowing individuals to register an FIR at any police station, regardless of where the crime was committed within the state, promotes accessibility and fairness. Such provisions can help eliminate delays and bureaucratic obstacles, making the justice system more responsive and inclusive.
Regarding legal framework alignment, new criminal laws are designed to update outdated statutes and align the legal system with contemporary societal needs. This includes addressing emerging crimes such as cybercrime, identity theft, and online harassment, which are increasingly prevalent in today’s digital age. By adapting to technological advancements, the law becomes better equipped to handle modern challenges, enhancing its relevance and effectiveness in dealing with contemporary issues. The promotion of public safety is another critical effect.10 Criminal laws incorporating new crime prevention strategies, such as more effective policing and public awareness campaigns, can contribute to a safer environment for society. This also ties into the deterrence and prevention of crimes, as updated laws often introduce stricter penalties and more explicit definitions of criminal behaviour, which can deter potential offenders. Furthermore, promoting human rights and civil liberties remains a cornerstone of modern criminal law reforms. New laws often emphasize protecting individuals’ fundamental rights, such as the right to a fair trial, the right against self-incrimination, and protection from arbitrary detention. By prioritizing these protections, the new laws ensure that justice is equitable and respectful of personal freedoms.
The introduction of new laws can also influence social perceptions and attitudes. As the legal system evolves to reflect contemporary values better, it can shift societal views on issues like gender equality, mental health, and the treatment of marginalized communities. For example, reforms related to domestic violence or gender-based violence can change how society views and responds to these issues, promoting greater awareness and support for victims.11 However, despite these potential benefits, there are implementation challenges. For example, there might be resistance to change from various sectors, including law enforcement agencies, legal professionals, or even the general public. Inadequate infrastructure, insufficient training, and limited resources can also hinder the practical application of new laws.12 Additionally, there might be concerns about potential misuse or overreach in specific provisions, especially when new rules are broadly worded or implemented hastily.
In this era of rapid technological advancement, criminal laws must evolve and address the new challenges and opportunities that technology presents. Legislation focusing on data privacy, intellectual property rights, and digital security plays a crucial role in integrating technology into society while protecting individuals and organizations from its potential misuse. Such laws help ensure that technology serves best interests of the society while protecting against cybercrimes, identity theft, and online exploitation.
Effective criminal laws are key to maintaining public safety and security. By tackling emerging threats such as terrorism, cybercrime, and organized crime, modern criminal laws enhance societal resilience and reduce the risk of harm. Laws that clearly define criminal behaviour and set appropriate penalties help deter potential offenders, signalling that specific actions will not be tolerated. Moreover, modern criminal laws go beyond just punishment. They incorporate preventive measures such as rehabilitation programs, restorative justice, and community policing initiatives. These strategies aim to reduce crime rates over time and foster social stability by addressing the root causes of criminal behaviour and offering alternatives to traditional punitive measures. By focusing on rehabilitation, these laws encourage reintegration and reduce recidivism, helping to break the cycle of crime.
A modernized legal framework also strengthens protections for human rights and civil liberties.13 This ensures that individuals in the criminal justice system are treated with dignity and respect. Modern laws are designed to safeguard due process rights, prevent discrimination, and provide fair trials. Additionally, they promote alternatives to incarceration, particularly for non-violent offenders, such as diversion programs, community service, or electronic monitoring. This shift helps to reduce prison overcrowding and offers a more humane approach to justice.
TECHNOLOGICAL INTEGRATION ON LAW
Legal data equips lawyers to make informed decisions. As they adapt to technological advancements, they recognize these opportunities and challenges. This introduction sets the stage for a deeper exploration of current tech trends and their significant impact on legal research, automation, data protection, and privacy. The evolving relationship between technology and law raises essential ethical considerations, prompting critical analysis. E-courts and virtual hearings reduce case backlogs and improve access to justice for remote and underserved communities. Blockchain technology ensures tamper-proof evidence management, while advanced surveillance and forensic tools aid in accurate crime investigation. These innovations speed up judicial processes and foster accountability and trust in the system. However, their effectiveness depends on addressing challenges like data security, ethical concerns, and the digital divide.14
Integrating technology into the legal landscape presents significant challenges and ethical concerns for legal professionals and society. A key issue is the potential displacement of jobs, as automation of routine legal tasks raises concerns about its impact on employment in the legal sector. This prompts the need to balance technological efficiency with preserving opportunities for legal professionals.15 Another critical concern is the ethical dilemmas stemming from increased reliance on technology. The digital divide, differences in access to and proficiency with technology, risks creating disparities in legal representation and access to justice. Not everyone has equal access to digital tools, potentially leading to inequities within the legal system. Using algorithms and artificial intelligence in legal decision-making raises significant ethical concerns, particularly regarding the risk of embedded biases. Ensuring fairness and upholding ethical standards requires scrutiny of how these technologies are implemented in legal proceedings.16 As technology continues to reshape the legal landscape, addressing these challenges and moral issues is essential to maintaining a fair and equitable legal system for everyone.
The future of the legal field is set to be transformed by technology, much like smartphones revolutionized communication. Imagine a world where advanced systems predict legal outcomes, making decision-making faster and more efficient. Tools like artificial intelligence and analytics are expected to play a more prominent role, streamlining tasks such as drafting and analyzing legal documents while improving accuracy and speed.
Beyond gadgets and software, the focus will be on creating a legal system that evolves with the changing world. Data protection and privacy will take center stage, with laws adapting to the fast-paced digital age.17 However, this technological shift brings challenges, such as ensuring fairness and preventing biases in automated systems. Ultimately, the future of law lies in striking a balance, harnessing technology to enhance efficiency while preserving the ethical principles that underpin the legal profession.
VICTIM-CENTRIC REFORMS
Lawmakers, social reformers, and various stakeholders have strongly advocated the call for victim-centric reforms in the Indian Criminal Justice System. These reforms prioritize victims’ rights, needs, and welfare within the justice process.18 The foundational pillars of these efforts are the 154th Law Commission Report (1997) and the Justice Malimath Committee Report (2003), which emphasize the need for a more victim-focused approach to ensure justice, dignity, and support for those affected by crime.
The 154th Law Commission Report (1997), led by Justice K.J. Reddy, emphasized victimology alongside criminology, penology, and criminal justice reforms. The report focused on victims’ compensatory and participatory rights, viewing compensation as public assistance for the disadvantaged and a state’s humanitarian duty to support crime victims. Recommendations included providing victims with material, medical, psychological, and social assistance. It also highlighted the police’s responsibility to treat victims sympathetically, inform them about compensation options, and update them on investigation outcomes, laying the groundwork for future amendments to protect victims’ rights.
The Justice Malimath Committee Report (2003) highlighted the lack of legal rights and protections for victims in criminal proceedings. It proposed two key victim rights: participation in criminal proceedings and the right to seek and receive compensation from courts. The report drew inspiration from the UK’s reforms, recommending measures such as victims’ right to information, the appointment of a victim commissioner, and an online portal for filing minor complaints. The overarching goal was to minimize victimization by focusing on crime prevention and ensuring victims play an integral role in the justice system.
The Hon’ble Supreme Court has addressed the need for reforms in the Indian Criminal Justice System in several landmark judgments. In the case of Delhi Domestic Working Women’s Forum v. Union of India and Others,19 the Court emphasized the importance of creating a scheme for victim compensation and rehabilitation to ensure justice for victims of violent crimes. It noted that reforms needed to meet victims’ expectations are not necessarily structural but attitudinal, focusing on a more empathetic approach. In the State of Himachal Pradesh v. Sanjay Kumar,20 the Court highlighted the lack of a victim protection mechanism in the criminal justice process. It stressed the urgent need for significant reforms to adopt a survivor-centric approach, particularly in cases of sexual violence, ensuring victims’ rights and dignity are safeguarded. These judgments underline the judiciary’s acknowledgment of the critical need for victim-oriented reforms in India’s criminal justice framework.
Victim-centric reforms focus on the needs and rights of victims, ensuring that they are treated with dignity and respect throughout the criminal justice process.21 These reforms include:
1. Support Services: Victims often face emotional, psychological, and financial trauma. Criminal law reforms that integrate support services—such as counselling, legal assistance, and monetary compensation—ensure that victims are not left to face the consequences of crime alone.
2. Victim Protection: Laws need to provide measures for the protection of victims, especially in sensitive cases such as domestic violence, sexual assault, and trafficking. This includes witness protection programs, anonymity for victims in some instances, and ensuring that victims do not face harassment or intimidation during the trial.
3. Restorative Justice: This approach involves focusing on repairing the harm done to the victim rather than just punishing the offender. It emphasizes dialogue between the offender and the victim, allowing victims to have a say in the outcome and providing an opportunity for offenders to understand the impact of their actions.
The new criminal laws in India adopt a victim-centric approach, emphasizing compensation, rehabilitation, and active participation in legal proceedings.22 They mandate victim-friendly processes, such as audio-video recording of statements, to reduce secondary trauma and ensure sensitivity from law enforcement. Provisions also address the needs of vulnerable groups, aiming to create a more empathetic and just system for victims of crime.
SYNERGY BETWEEN TECHNOLOGICAL INTEGRATION, VICTIM-CENTRIC REFORMS, AND CRIMINAL LAW REFORMS
The synergy between technological integration, victim-centric reforms, and criminal law reforms is pivotal in transforming the criminal justice system into a more efficient, equitable, and responsive structure. Technological advancements offer the opportunity to enhance the investigation, prosecution, and judicial processes, making them faster, more accurate, and more transparent.23 Tools such as digital evidence management, forensic technology, and electronic case filing enable evidence collection, storage, and retrieval more securely and efficiently. Additionally, technologies like facial recognition, AI-driven crime prediction models, and automated data analysis can assist law enforcement agencies in detecting and preventing crimes more effectively. Notably, the mandatory use of audio-video recordings during police searches, arrests, and interrogations, as prescribed by recent reforms, ensures accountability and transparency, reducing the likelihood of misconduct or abuse.
On the other hand, victim-centric reforms focus on improving the experience of individuals impacted by crime, ensuring they receive timely justice and adequate support throughout the legal process.24 These reforms aim to give victims a more accessible and empathetic system where their rights and concerns are prioritized. Key components of such reforms include ensuring the protection of victim privacy, expediting trials, offering victim compensation, and providing psychological support and rehabilitation services. Furthermore, integrating technology into victim-centric reforms can enhance the overall experience, such as providing online platforms for victims to report crimes, track the progress of their cases, and receive updates on legal proceedings. Victim impact statements can also be submitted electronically, giving victims a voice in the courtroom even if they cannot attend in person.
Criminal law reforms can create a more holistic legal framework when aligned with technological integration and a victim-centered approach. By updating outdated laws and making them more aligned with modern societal needs, these reforms address new and emerging challenges, such as cybercrime, organized crime, and terrorism. At the same time, they recognize the importance of protecting victims and ensuring that offenders are held accountable justly. The combination of these reforms creates a balanced legal system where the rights of the accused, the needs of victims, and the demands of effective law enforcement are all considered. As criminal law reforms continue to evolve, the integration of technology and a focus on victims’ rights will be crucial in creating a justice system that is more efficient, humane, transparent, and responsive to the complexities of modern society.25 The synergy intertwined between the elements is as follows:
1. Improved Access to Justice: Technology can make justice more accessible, especially for marginalized or remote communities. Victim-centric reforms can be more easily implemented through digital platforms, offering victims information, resources, and support.
2. Enhanced Victim Protection and Empowerment: Technological tools such as GPS tracking, secure communication channels, and digital platforms for reporting crimes can improve victim protection. These tools can also ensure that victims are involved in the justice process, allowing them to track their cases, access services, and communicate with legal teams.
3. Preventing Crime: Technology can play a preventative role when combined with victim-centric reforms. For example, surveillance systems in public spaces, combined with awareness programs for victims, can prevent crimes from occurring. Additionally, restorative justice programs, supported by digital platforms for communication, can help offenders understand the consequences of their actions before they escalate.
This synergy not only strengthens the overall criminal justice system but also ensures that victims are treated with the care and respect they deserve while maintaining the integrity and effectiveness of the law.
CONCLUSION
“For too long, the law has centred its attention more on the rights of the criminal than on the victims of crime. It is high time we reversed this trend and put the highest priority on the victims and potential victims.” – President Gerald R. Ford
Integrating technology, victim-centric reforms, and the 2024 criminal law changes represent a significant step toward a more efficient, equitable, and compassionate justice system. By leveraging tools like AI and blockchain, ensuring robust support for victims, and modernizing legal frameworks, these reforms aim to address systemic inefficiencies and empower marginalized groups. However, their success hinges on careful implementation, addressing challenges like cybersecurity, resource gaps, and ethical concerns. Moving forward, the focus must remain on creating a balanced system that upholds fairness, protects rights, and effectively delivers justice.
Technological integration is at the forefront of these changes, promising to revolutionize how justice is delivered. The advent of AI and automation, digital platforms like e-courts, and blockchain for evidence management offer the potential to make legal processes faster, more transparent, and less susceptible to human error or corruption. However, these advancements are not without their challenges. The risks associated with data privacy, cybersecurity, and the ethical implications of relying on algorithms in decision-making remain significant hurdles that need careful consideration. It is imperative to balance the use of technology with safeguards that protect individual rights and ensure that justice remains fair and unbiased.
Victim-centric reforms emphasize the need to transform the justice system into one that punishes offenders and supports and empowers victims. By providing victims with more substantial rights, emotional and financial support, and a voice in legal proceedings, these reforms aim to heal the often-overlooked trauma that victims endure. Fast-track courts, compensation mechanisms, and victim support services are critical to this shift, ensuring victims cannot navigate the legal system alone. However, these reforms face challenges, including limited resources and resistance within traditional justice institutions. Overcoming these barriers is essential to building a genuinely inclusive justice system that prioritizes victims’ needs without sacrificing the fairness owed to the accused.
The Criminal Law Reforms 2024 seeks to create a more modern and effective justice system by introducing new laws and mechanisms that integrate technology and focus on victims’ rights. These reforms already yield positive results, such as reduced case pendency, enhanced transparency, and improved victim compensation frameworks. However, like any systemic change, these reforms have potential unintended consequences, including over-reliance on technology and the risk of reinforcing inequalities. Effective enforcement remains a critical issue, as the success of these reforms depends on proper implementation, public awareness, and institutional buy-in. Ensuring these reforms do not inadvertently disadvantage marginalized communities or compromise fundamental rights is an ongoing challenge.
The synergy between technological integration, victim-centric reforms, and criminal law reforms in 2024 holds great promise. Technology has the potential to support and enhance victim-centric measures, such as providing accessible reporting tools, facilitating case tracking, and ensuring better protection for witnesses. Data-driven policing and digitizing evidence can improve law enforcement’s ability to address crimes swiftly and fairly. However, technological tools must be deployed cautiously, ensuring they do not undermine the core principles of justice, such as fairness, due process, and equal treatment under the law.
Therefore, the criminal justice system is undergoing a profound transformation driven by technological advancements, victim-centric reforms, and the sweeping changes introduced by criminal law reforms in 2024. These developments, while varied in their focus, share the common goal of making the justice system more efficient, accessible, fair, and responsive to the needs of both society and individual victims.
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Footnotes
1. Section 152, Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2024.
2. Section 111, Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2024.
3. Section 113, Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2024.
4. Aishwarya Agrawal. Constitution of Criminal Courts and Their Powers. LAWBHOOMI, 2025.
5. Bharat Mishra. Constitutional Perspective of Criminal Procedure Code. Lawyered, 2023.
6. Lucia Zedner, Carl-Friedrich Stuckenberg. Due Process, Criminal Justice Procedure. Core Concepts in Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS, 2019.
7. Lorenzo Zucca. The Constitution of Criminal Law. University of Toronto Law Journal, UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS. Vol 70 (1) pp 27-43, 2020.
8. Judicial review: Scope, Ambit and Dimensions. NJA Gov. Conclusions, 2019. https://nja.gov.in/Concluded_Programmes/2018-19/P-1110_PPTs/13.Sunday%20Club%20talk%20(Judicial%20Review).pdf (Last viewed 24.07.2025)
9. Suveer Khanna. Three New Criminal Laws. KPMG. https://kpmg.com/in/en/insights/2024/03/three-new-criminal-laws.html#:~:text=The%20new%20laws%20overhaul%20the,them%20priorities%20of%20these%20laws. (Last viewed 24.07.2025)
10. Avika Shree, Ritik Agrawal. Implementation of New Criminal Laws in India. JUS SCRIPTUM, 2025. https://www.jusscriptumlaw.com/post/implementation-of-new-criminal-laws-in-india. (Last viewed 24.07.2025)
11. Medha Deo. How India’s New Criminal Laws Curb Civil Liberties. IDR, 2025. https://idronline.org/article/rights/how-indias-new-criminal-laws-curb-civil-liberties/ (Last viewed 24.07.2025)
12. Mohini Taneja. What is the Transformative Impact of India’s New Criminal Laws? LINGAYA’S JOURNAL, LINGAYA’S VIDYAPEETH, 2024.
13. supra, note 11.
14. Akanksha Dutta. The New Criminal Laws and their Interface with Technology. ESYA CENTRE, 2024. https://www.esyacentre.org/perspectives/2024/7/31/the-new-criminal-laws-and-their-interface-with-technology (Last viewed 24.07.2025)
15. ibid.
16. ibid.
17. ibid.
18. Pradyumna Bodkhe. Victim-centric Justice Under BNS and BNSS: An evolving Paradigm in Indian Criminal Law. INDIAN JOURNAL OF LAW AND LEGAL RESEARCH, 2025. https://www.ijllr.com/post/victim-centric-justice-under-bns-and-bnss-an-evolving-paradigm-in-indian-criminal-law (Last viewed 24.07.2025)
19. 1995 SCC (1) 14.
20. AIR 2017 SC 835.
21. Sunishtha Moghe, Niti Nipuna Saxena. Victim Participation in Criminal Trials under New Criminal Laws in India: Doctrinal Comments. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LEGAL SCIENCE AND INNOVATIOn, vol 7 (3), 2025.
22. ibid.
23. Exploring the Recent Shifts in Criminal Law and Their Implications. EBC. Exploring the Recent Shifts in Criminal Law & Their Implications – EBC (Last viewed 24.07.2025)
24. Irfan Yattoo. Face to Face: New Criminal Laws focus on efficiency, victim-centric justice. RISING KASHMIR, 2025.
25. Kush V Trivedi. Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita: India’s new transformative criminal law. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LAW, vol. 11 (4), pp. 1-6, 2025. https://www.lawjournals.org/assets/archives/2025/vol11issue4/10 287.pdf (Last viewed 24.07.2025)