INTRODUCTION
Niccolò Machiavelli is one of the most influential and controversial figures in political thought because he changed the way politics could be studied. Rather than presenting politics as a moral project aimed at virtue in the abstract, he examined how rulers actually behave in unstable and competitive environments (Machiavelli, 1532/1998). This shift in attention from ideal norms to practical consequences is what makes Machiavelli so relevant to realism in International Relations (IR), a school of thought that also begins from the assumption that political life is shaped by power, competition, and insecurity (Donnelly, 2000; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010).
The relevance of Machiavelli to IR goes beyond simple historical influence. Realism argues that the international system is characterized by anarchy, meaning that no central authority can guarantee order or security for states (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010). In such a world, states must rely on their own strength, strategy, and judgment to survive (Donnelly, 2000). Machiavelli’s political thought anticipates this logic in a striking way because he too sees politics as a domain where necessity often matters more than moral aspiration. His writings therefore offer an early and powerful language for thinking about power, prudence, and survival.
This article develops that argument in a descriptive and analytical way. It first reviews the scholarship that connects Machiavelli to realism and then explains the methodological approach used in the paper. After that, it examines Machiavelli’s ideas on effectual truth, power, necessity, human nature, virtù, and fortuna, showing how each of these concepts helps clarify the realist understanding of politics. The article concludes by arguing that Machiavelli remains important not because he wrote a modern theory of international politics, but because he helped establish a way of thinking that realism later transformed into a formal IR tradition (Leung, 2012; Donnelly, 2000).
A. Literature Review
The academic literature on Machiavelli and realism can be grouped into two broad tendencies. One tendency presents Machiavelli as an important ancestor of realist political thought. The other warns that such a reading can oversimplify Machiavelli’s historical context and philosophical concerns.
The first tendency emphasizes Machiavelli’s break with idealistic political philosophy. Scholars in this tradition note that Machiavelli’s insistence on effectual truth places him close to realism because he treats politics as a practical field shaped by conflict, risk, and human limitation rather than by moral perfection (Machiavelli, 1532/1998; Mansfield, 2023). Donnelly (2000) reinforces this view by describing realism as a tradition focused on power, self-help, and the limits of cooperation in world politics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy overview of IR realism similarly identifies realism as a view that stresses the conflictual side of international politics and the central role of states pursuing their own security (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010).
A second body of literature is more cautious. It argues that Machiavelli should not be treated as if he were writing IR theory in advance. His world was the fragmented political landscape of Renaissance Italy, not the modern sovereign state system (Leung, 2012). This means that although his ideas are relevant to realism, they do not map neatly onto the concepts of polarity, balance of power, or systemic anarchy used in contemporary IR. Some scholars also note that Machiavelli is often misunderstood as merely cynical or immoral, when in fact he was deeply concerned with the preservation of political order and the practical conditions for stable rule (Mansfield, 2023; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010). His work therefore contains a stronger ethical and civic dimension than the stereotype of “Machiavellian” politics suggests.
Recent scholarship has tried to bridge these two positions. A number of studies explore Machiavelli as a thinker whose concepts—such as virtù, fortuna, force, law, and necessity have strong heuristic value for IR even if he did not formulate a modern theory of the international system (Leung, 2012; Mansfield, 2023). This article aligns with that more balanced approach. It argues that Machiavelli should be read as a foundational political thinker whose conception of politics helped make realist thinking possible, while also recognizing that his own analysis was broader and more historically specific than later realism.
B. Methodology
This paper uses a qualitative, interpretive, and conceptual methodology. It relies on close textual reading of Machiavelli’s political writings, especially The Prince, while also drawing on established IR realism literature and major interpretive works on Machiavelli (Donnelly, 2000; Machiavelli, 1532/1998; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010). The goal is not to test a causal hypothesis statistically, but to interpret how Machiavelli’s understanding of politics can be related to the core assumptions of realism.
The method is comparative. It compares Machiavelli’s key concepts effectual truth, necessity, virtù, fortuna, power, and political order with realism’s assumptions about anarchy, state survival, self-help, and conflict (Donnelly, 2000; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010). This approach is useful because it allows the paper to show intellectual continuities without claiming that Machiavelli anticipated realism in a literal or direct sense. Instead, the paper treats realism as a later theoretical framework that resonates with Machiavelli’s political logic.
The article is also hermeneutic in nature, meaning that it seeks to interpret ideas within their historical and conceptual context. This is important because Machiavelli’s thought is often distorted when it is forced into simplified modern categories. By reading Machiavelli carefully and then placing him beside realism, the paper aims to produce a more nuanced understanding of both traditions (Leung, 2012; Mansfield, 2023).
MACHIAVELLI AND THE MEANING OF EFFECTUAL TRUTH
Machiavelli’s most distinctive intellectual contribution is his insistence on effectual truth. He rejects political thinking that relies on idealized images of virtue, justice, or harmony and instead directs attention to how politics actually works in practice (Machiavelli, 1532/1998; Mansfield, 2023). This is not simply a style of writing; it is a way of thinking about political reality. For Machiavelli, serious political analysis must begin with facts, consequences, and the practical conditions of rule.
This concept is highly relevant to realism because realism also begins from observed patterns rather than moral aspiration. Realists argue that world politics is not governed by universal morality but by competition among states seeking security and advantage (Donnelly, 2000; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010). That is why realism tends to focus on power balances, strategic interaction, and the limits of trust in an anarchic environment. Machiavelli’s effectual truth performs a similar function in political theory: it forces the analyst to look at what is actually happening rather than what a political system claims should happen.
The descriptive force of this idea is significant. Machiavelli is not merely saying that politics is sometimes harsh; he is suggesting that politics has its own logic, one that cannot be fully judged by standards borrowed from religion or moral philosophy (Machiavelli, 1532/1998; Mansfield, 2023). That is exactly the kind of intellectual move that made realism possible as a tradition of political analysis.
POWER, NECESSITY, AND THE PRESERVATION OF ORDER
Machiavelli’s politics is inseparable from power. He does not treat power as a distortion of politics; power is the medium through which political order is created and maintained. A ruler who fails to understand power relations will not preserve authority for long. In this sense, Machiavelli argues that political life is governed by necessity, not by wishful thinking (Machiavelli, 1532/1998).
This emphasis closely resembles realism’s claim that states exist in a world where survival cannot be assumed. Realists emphasize that, because international politics lacks a central authority, each state must take responsibility for its own security (Donnelly, 2000; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010). The result is a world of self-help, strategic calculation, and recurring tension. Machiavelli’s world is different in scale, but the underlying logic is remarkably similar: order is always fragile, and power is always relevant.
What makes Machiavelli especially interesting is that he does not present power in a purely destructive sense. Power is necessary because politics must hold communities together, defeat threats, and create stability amid uncertainty. This is a more nuanced position than the stereotype of ruthless Machiavellianism suggests. It is one reason Machiavelli continues to speak to IR scholars, because realism too is not simply about force; it is about the conditions under which order can survive without illusion (Leung, 2012; Mansfield, 2023).
HUMAN NATURE, CONFLICT, AND POLITICAL DISTRUST
Machiavelli’s realism also rests on a sober understanding of human nature. He assumes that people are often ambitious, inconsistent, and responsive to fear and advantage. He does not argue that humans are incapable of morality, but he does insist that rulers cannot rely on ideal trust when designing political strategy (Machiavelli, 1532/1998). Political life demands awareness of deception, ambition, and uncertainty.
This is one of the strongest links between Machiavelli and realism in IR. Classical realism, especially, has often explained conflict through the imperfections of human nature and the recurring desire for security and power (Donnelly, 2000). The international system, in realist thought, is not peaceful by default; it is a space where trust is fragile and competition is normal (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010). Machiavelli’s analysis of political life suggests a similar lesson. Because human beings are unpredictable and often self-interested, political order requires vigilance, discipline, and strategic foresight.
The role of distrust in Machiavelli’s thought is not simply negative. Distrust is a practical response to uncertainty. It is a way of acknowledging that political communities cannot be built on innocence alone. In this respect, Machiavelli’s understanding of human nature supports the realist claim that prudence is more valuable than naïve optimism.
VIRTÙ, FORTUNA, AND STRATEGIC JUDGMENT
Two of Machiavelli’s most famous concepts are virtù and fortuna. Fortuna refers to luck, unpredictability, and the unstable conditions that shape political events. Virtù refers to the capacity of a political actor to respond effectively to those changing conditions (Machiavelli, 1532/1998; Mansfield, 2023). These ideas are important because they show that Machiavelli does not believe politics is fully controllable. Instead, political success depends on the ability to act wisely in the face of uncertainty.
This dynamic closely resembles realism’s concern with strategy under pressure. Realist theory assumes that states cannot eliminate uncertainty, only manage it. They do this through alliances, deterrence, power accumulation, and careful judgment (Donnelly, 2000; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010). Machiavelli’s virtù captures the same principle at the level of political leadership. A successful ruler must be adaptable, forceful when necessary, and aware of changing circumstances.
The contrast between virtù and fortuna also adds depth to the realist reading of Machiavelli. It shows that realism is not simply about pessimism. It is also about practical intelligence, timing, and the ability to transform chance into advantage. Machiavelli’s political actor is therefore not passive before fortune; he or she must strive to shape events in the most effective way possible.
WHY MACHIAVELLI MATTERS FOR REALIST THEORY
Machiavelli matters for realism because he offers a political vocabulary that later realist theorists adapted to the study of international politics. His emphasis on power, necessity, conflict, and strategic judgment makes him a natural reference point for any theory that takes security and survival seriously (Donnelly, 2000; Leung, 2012). Yet his importance is not limited to influence. He also helps clarify what realism is trying to do as a theory.
Realism seeks to explain why political actors repeatedly face competition, insecurity, and the need for self-help in an anarchic environment (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010). Machiavelli’s conception of politics helps explain why such conditions are so difficult to escape. If political actors are ambitious, if power matters, and if uncertainty is permanent, then political life will always require prudence rather than moral innocence. That is a deeply Machiavellian insight.
At the same time, Machiavelli should not be reduced to a simple realist slogan. His political thought is richer than the label suggests. He is concerned not only with winning but with preserving political order over time. That concern gives his thought a broader civic and institutional dimension that remains important for political theory and IR alike (Mansfield, 2023; Leung, 2012).
CONCLUSION
Machiavelli’s conception of politics provides a powerful basis for IR realism because it insists that political life must be understood through the realities of power, necessity, and uncertainty. His notion of effectual truth rejects abstract idealism and demands attention to the actual workings of political order (Machiavelli, 1532/1998; Mansfield, 2023). His ideas about human nature, conflict, virtù, and fortuna further reinforce the realist belief that politics is shaped by strategic judgment under conditions of insecurity (Donnelly, 2000; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010).
Yet Machiavelli’s lasting significance lies in more than his influence on realism. He teaches that political analysis must begin with reality and that order depends on difficult choices made under pressure. For a national journal submission, this makes him an excellent subject because he connects classical political theory to contemporary IR debates in a way that is both intellectually serious and practically meaningful. Machiavelli remains relevant because he forces political thinkers to confront the limits of moral language and the hard logic of political survival.