INTRODUCTION
In the year 1879, Thomas Edison’s incandescent light bulbs illuminated a street of New York, marking the beginning of the Modern age of electric lighting. Ever since, the world has been flooded with electric light.1The rising world population has increased the need for urban housing growth, not only in the large cities but also in suburbs and rural areas. This rapid urbanization and globalization have promoted a new kind of “night lifestyle” among individuals, who partake in entertainment activities late at night till early in the morning.
The boom on urban design and lifestyle changes have caused our cities to depend more on varied illumination systems, to the point where some cities like Mumbai and New York City are dubbed “the cities that never sleep”. Although this trend contributes greatly to the economy, it also produces dire repercussion little awareness.2Human behaviours are mainly associated with brightly lit surroundings. The last century has been an unprecedented increase in use of ALAN, with a present rate of growth in the world over 6% per year.3 This paper thus, deals with the impacts of Artificial Light at Night on flora, fauna, and human beings.
LIGHT POLLUTION
Light pollution is a term that describes massive, unjustified, and excessive usage of artificial light in the form of exterior light sources that harms to the environment, wildlife, astronomy, way of life, etc. In spite of the serious repercussions of the indiscriminate and risky utilization of various types of artificial lighting devices, indoor or outdoor, the masses have no idea about this kind of pollution that they are subjected to on a daily basis. Numerous studies and interventions are establishing the existence and impact of air, water, soil, and noise pollution, but few sources mention light pollution as the environmental hazard. Outdoor lighting is a significant threat to astronomy.4Astronomical light pollution is used to describe the problem in observing the night sky and observing celestial objects due to artificial illumination at night. This issue has been pressured by the International Dark-Sky Association.5IDA also gave a formal definition which refers light pollution as any adverse effect of artificial light that includes skyglow, glare, light trespass, light clutter, decreased visibility at night, and energy waste.6Various types of research have discovered several factors and effects associated with this pollution, asserting that the condition will only get worse in the future. The deteriorating impacts were researched much later, highlighting the fact that light pollution has direct and indirect adverse impacts on every living entity-plants, animals, and human beings.7
Over 80% of the world’s population along with over 99% of those in the U.S. and Europe, live under light-polluted skies.8 During 2001 and 2011, India’s urban residents grew at a slightly faster rate than its rural residents. India’s National Commission on Population (NCP) has estimated that around 38.6% of Indians (600 million) are expected to live in urban areas in the next 15 years, by 2036.9The United Nations (2014) predicts four Indian cities—Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Chennai, and Hyderabad,with populations extending from 5 to 10 million—to become megacities in the years ahead, increasing the number of megacities in the nation to 7 in the year 2030. A January 2019 study highlighted the consistent growth of outdoor lighting during the last two decades and the negative impacts it has been exerting in various parts of India. In New Delhi, Telangana, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Uttar Pradesh too much of light pollution has been recorded, with a further rise observed between the years 1993 and 2013. West Bengal, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu saw rising levels of pollution even after showing low levels at the start.10As reported by ‘the new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness,’ which classify the G-20 countries on the basis of population and area affected by the light pollution, in which 58.5% of the Indian population is affected by the light pollution, covering an area of 24.7%.11
COMPONENTS OF LIGHT POLLUTION
The main components of light pollution include:
• Sky Glow: Illuminating of the night sky over the populated areas, which conceals the view of certain celestial bodies such as stars and planets.
• Glare: Too much brightness that causes visual discomfort and may reduce visibility, thus impairing activities, for instance driving.
• Light Trespass: Artificial lighting that interrupt into sites where it is not needed or wanted, such as the light from streetlights entering into the bedrooms.
• Clutter: Intense, confusing, and overwhelming aggregations of luminous sources, often found in overly lit commercial areas.12
FLORA
A study, reported in the journal Frontiers in Plant Science in 2024, bring out that ALAN creates species-specific responses on the leaf nutrients, size, and compounds of defense.
The study explored this impact in two kinds of common street trees in Beijing – green ash (Fraxinuspennsylvanica) & Japanese pagoda tree (Styphnolobiumjaponicum). High levels of artificial light were noticed to be hardening up leaves of tree & making them less edible to insects, so it endangering to urban food webs.13
ALAN adversely affects the plant’s ability to photosynthesis. ALAN interferes with the normal cycles of plant species and the night period required for effective photosynthesis process.14 In the year 2018, Meravi and Prajapati conducted a research study which inspecting the effects of street lighting on the photosynthetic activities of the plants growing under the streetlights.15Artificial light united with drought, bring about photoinhibition & oxidative stress, which give rise to disturbance in the photosynthetic machinery & reduction in the photosynthetic parameters.16Artificial lights also negatively impact nocturnal pollination networks & threaten terrestrial ecosystems considerably. This disruption impacts the plant’s flowering process.17ALAN has the potential to cause buds to open earlier in spring or leaf fall to be delayed in autumn, thus interrupting their normal seasonal cycles.18
ALAN has the ability to decrease phyllosphere fungal and bacterial diversity, which can harm health and disease resistance of plant. According to a study, Exposure to ALAN was shown to decrease the microorganism diversity of L. chinesis, V. sepium, and A. altaicu in the different ways. ALAN altered the composition of the phyllosphere microbial community, leading to reduced abundance of advantageous functional bacteria like Sphingomonas, Hymenobacter, Methlobacterium-Methylorubrum, and Bacillus.19Phyllosphere is a term used to describe the plant’s aerial part which includes fruits, flower, stems, and leaves which serve as a habitat for microorganism. It is the plant surface and environment above ground, colonized and interacting with the plant by microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria. ALAN-induced disruption in natural light regimes could result in ecological disturbances and may threaten plant community biodiversity.20
FAUNA
Fauna covers all types of animal life, from insects and amphibians to birds, mammals, and even microorganisms. Interference caused by artificial lighting has profound impacts on fish, amphibians, coral reefs, reptiles, birds, mammals, and all other wildlife species.21
Light pollution affects the migration patterns of bird species, especially nocturnal birds during nighttime, since they are usually trapped by light sources in urban areas, making it difficult for them to rest. Moreover, birds often crash into buildings because of reflective light surfaces. Of the many endangered bird species, Petrels are more at risk of mortality from this kind of pollution.22Rodríguez tested an experiment that probed how metal halide (one particular spectrum of light used in lighting systems) increases the mortality rate over other light spectrums, like high-pressure sodium lights and light-emitting diodes. Birds which were not subjected to too much light had better health status compared to those subjected to it.23
Insects that depend on light for mating and orientation can experience disturbed reproduction habits due to light pollution. For instance, moths and other nighttime insects are attracted by artificial light, which reduces mating success and alters population dynamics.24Light pollution can also affect the breeding of amphibians by disrupting their mating and reproductive calls. Amphibians that rely on natural light signals for breeding might face reduced success and changed behaviour.25In the year 2015, Barranco & Hughes look into the impacts of LED lighting & halogens on Amphipods together with the coastlines of the Great Barrier Reef. The research concluded that LED lights had a greater effect, altering the distribution and behaviour of Amphipods, which consequently impacts their entire environment.26
Fish reaction to light sources depends on the species, but in most cases, fish avoid the white light sources that industrial fisheries use. Strong light sources can drastically affect the behaviour of fish species, like impairing their eyes, which are mostly suited to dark habitats.27 A study found that artificial light at night (ALAN) had no effect on the total fish community. But it proposes the possibility that ALAN could more drastically influence some wild fish, especially carnivorous fish, in their choice of habitat.28
Shallow water coral reefs are especially light/dark sensitive, as a lot of their life is regulated by natural light. As such, they are negatively impacted by man-made light too. 29Artificial Light at Night has been detected in fringing reefs from highly urbanized waters. At the Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba coast in the Red Sea, where much has been researched on the influence of artificial light on reef corals. This region is also plagued by heavy light pollution, and the light reflected off surrounding cities is visible from space.30
Sea turtles exemplify the significant impact that artificial lighting on beaches can have on their behaviour. The sea turtles return to the same beaches where they were born to lay their eggs, repeatedly for many years. Nevertheless, when these beaches are illuminated during the night, the presence of intense light could discourage females from laying there; they can also get confused by the lights and unintentionally drift onto nearby roadways, putting themselves at risk of getting knocked by traffic. In addition, in a study by Michael Salmon and colleagues from Florida Atlantic University found in volume 122, number 1–2 (1992) of Behaviour, sea turtle hatchlings have generally navigated to the sea by heading away from the dark form of the landward horizon. Under the illumination of man-made light on the beach, hatchlings of the turtles may get disoriented and turn in the opposite direction towards the light, eventually reaching nowhere near the sea. 31
HUMAN BEINGS
While urbanization and increasing population has meant that artificial lighting at night has become more and more of a necessity, studies in the past have indicated that artificial light at night has some negative effects on human physiological activity, for they can interfere with the circadian rhythm of man—this biological clock in the brain regulates wakefulness and sleep not just in man, but in all mammals. Exposure to undesirable light is a major causative factor for circadian disturbances and can cause several physiological problems, such as metabolic alterations that can cause cardiovascular disease, kidney diseases, and type II diabetes. Increased exposure to artificial light in the nighttime can cause an elevation in cortisol levels and a reduction in melatonin levels, thus resulting in reduced sleep quality and the occurrence of depressive symptoms.32Koo et al. (2016) conducted a study to investigate the relationship between outdoor lighting and obesity. While no cause-effect relationship was established between the two, several studies present evidence that obesity has risen in recent years as a result of artificial lighting exposure at night, which lowers melatonin product during nighttime.33
The human eye is also sensitive to artificial light, which affects the perception of vision. It is also indicated that ALAN could impact eye health, so possibly increase the risk of myopia and other vision problems.34Eye diseases like retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD) could be caused by continuous exposure to artificial light, as it changes light intensity and wavelengths.35Romeo et al. (2013) conducted an experiment where Sprague Albino rats were exposed to artificial light for 20 to 90 days, resulting in a reduction in TH-positive dopamine neurons. This result indicates that light pollution may be able to play a role in causing Parkinson’s disease in humans, but more testing is needed to support this theory.36
Several studies carried out in the last decade have revealed that the modern practice of exposing our bodies to artificial light in the night increases the risk of cancer, specifically hormone-dependent cancers like breast and prostate cancer. Studies have revealed that the women working in the night shifts have higher rates of breast cancer, whereas blind women, who tend to be sheltered to such artificial light, show minimized risks. In 2007, the International Agency for Research on Cancer determined shift work to be a likely human carcinogen. A recently conducted large-scale study that covered 164 nations presents further evidence linking total light pollution to cancer risk.37
Since 1995, numerous published journal articles such as Epidemiology, Cancer Causes and Control the Journal of the National Cancer Institute, and Aviation Space Environmental Medicine have reported on female night-shift works on rotating night shifts that have occupational exposure to night light at work and risk for breast cancer. In a paper published in the 17 October 2001 issue of the Journal of the National Cancer Institute, Harvard University, epidemiologist Eva S. Schernhammer and colleagues at Boston’s Brigham and Women’s Hospital evaluated data from the 1988 Nurses’ Health Study (NHS), in which 121,701 registered female nurses were queried on a range of health issues. Schernhammer and colleagues found an association of breast cancer with night work in women who had been working rotating night shifts for 30 or more years, accounting for 0.5% of the cohort. In addition, Schernhammer and the colleagues have used their NHS cohort to look into the association of artificial light exposure, night work, and colorectal cancer.
In the 4 June 2003 Journal of the National Cancer Institute, they reported the nurses who had worked night shifts at least every three weeks for 15 years or more had 35% increased risk of colorectal cancer. This is the first significant evidence of a relationship between night work and colorectal cancer, so it is too early to invoke a cause and effect. While proof against a shift work-cancer relationship is not persuasive, it was deemed adequate for the International Agency for Research on Cancer (ICAR) in 2007 to have designated shift work as a probable human carcinogen.38
GLOBAL INITIATIVES TO RESTRAINT LIGHT POLLUTION:
• The International Dark-Sky Association (IDA): This non-profit entity seeks to protect the night skies for present and future generations through responsible outdoor lighting and support for dark sky areas.
• The Globe at Night Program: This is an initiative of global public science which aims to create public awareness concerning the impacts of light pollution.
• The World Atlas of Artificial Night Sky Brightness: This scientific research project brings together and maps global data on artificial sky brightness to assist researchers, policy makers, and the public in their understanding of the extent and pattern of light pollution.
• International Year of Light and Light-based Technologies (IYL 2015): Convened by the United Nations to make people more aware of how crucial light and optical technologies are to our daily lives, and promote the proper use of artificial light to mitigate light pollution.39
Examples and Initiatives in India
India, with its vast and diverse geography, has significant light pollution, especially in its cities like Delhi, Mumbai, and Bangalore. Some of the following initiatives are from India aimed at mitigating light pollution:
• Astro-Tourism and Dark Sky Reserves: India has taken the first steps towards realizing the potential of astro-tourism, with places such as Ladakh and Spiti Valley offering stargazing tourism. Such areas, renowned for having pristine skies, attract tourists for celestial events and observations.
• Public Awareness Campaigns: The Indian Astrobiology Research Centre and other NGOs conduct workshops and awareness campaigns to enlighten the public regarding the effects of light pollution and the importance of maintaining dark skies.
• Collaborative Projects: Such collaborative projects as the joint study of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics and the Birla Industrial & Technological Museum regarding the extent of urban light pollution are aiming at mapping light pollution and devising measures to alleviate its effects.40
• Dark-Sky Park: There is an emerging trend to create “dark-sky sites” – places that are voluntarily certified to have an approved management plan aimed at reducing light pollution. On 11, 01, 2024, the Pench Tiger Reserve in Maharashtra was proclaimed as India’s first International Dark Sky Park, certified by the IDA.41
LAWS REGARDING LIGHT POLLUTION IN INDIA
There are no specific laws to address light pollution currently. However, the Indian legal system makes it possible to deal with this question in a tortious way, as is illustrated by the decisions in the United States. When the light source can be characterized as a nuisance, it can be regulated. Therefore, it cannot be said that there is no protection at all for this question.42
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) said there is lack of law in India regulating light pollution, in a reaction to the application [Panchtatva foundation V. Ministry of Environment forest and Climate Change43] filed before the National Green Tribunal (NGT), focusing on the ill impacts of Artificial Light At Night (ALAN). The Panchtatva Foundation, submitted research papers and articles from the years 2009-2019 to support its case. These reports include research on the effect of light pollution on the effectiveness of photosynthesis in plants, the fate of nocturnal pollinators, and other related matters. The board was guided by regulations framed by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) that include standards relating to artificial illumination for protected cultivation, lighting in interiors, industrial lighting, and other “performance and safety benchmarks” aimed at improving product quality and protecting consumer interests.
• IS 18807 (20a)– This standard covers artificial lighting systems used in protected cultivation with respect to parameters like light quality, intensity, photoperiod, and uniformity to promote plant growth.
• IS 3646-1 (1992) – This code of practice provides general requirements for interior illumination with emphasis on visual comfort and appropriate lighting levels for different functional areas such as offices, industrial units, and public buildings.
• IS 6665 (1972) – This standard gives a code of practice for industrial lighting that gives recommendations on safe, efficient, and environmentally sound lighting systems to be used in industrial purposes.
A bench comprising Justice Prakash Srivastava, Justice Sudhir Agarwal, and expert member Senthil Vel accepted the submission of CPCB. The said bench is now seeking replies from the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change and the Ministry of Science and Technology.
This absence of a specialized framework has contributed to unscientific lighting procedures, resulting in a public interest litigation brought before the Bombay High Court. 44 In Rohit Manohar Joshi vs. The Superintendent of Gardens and Tree Officer, Tree Authority & Ors45., this issue is still pending before the Bombay High Court regarding the harmful effects of excessive artificial lighting on trees and other life forms.
In July 2023, the NGT was adamant in calling for a comprehensive study on various facets of light pollution. Earlier decisions by the NGT, like Anil Mehta V. State of Rajasthan46, have acknowledged the need to scrutinize light pollution further and control it. The Union Government, as it plans its response to the NGT’s order, has to strike a balance between safety for the public and instituting a “light pollution index” or other monitoring mechanisms to make ensuring compliance and safety effective.
NGT, west zone bench, Pune, filed a suo-moto case following a news report of flamingo deaths around DPS Lake in Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, due to light pollution impacting their eyesight. [In re: News Item in The Indian Express dated 28. 04. 2024 titled “7 flamingos spotted near DPS Lake Wetland killed, activists blame CIDCO’s Development Plan” V. Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (H. O. F. F.), Maharashtra & Ors.47]
CONCLUSION
Artificial light at night is essential for the development of the nations. Even though the artificial light plays a crucial role in the development of economy of the country, the people have little awareness about the light pollution. The rapid urbanisation of the world leads to the excessive use of artificial light at night. This is severely affecting the flora, fauna, and human beings. As ALAN negatively impacts not only the human beings as well as the environment, there is an urgent need to regulate the light pollution in India. One of the major difficulties in regulating ALAN is balancing environmental issues with public security. In India, lighting in the street is not just a convenience but also an important factor to prevent crimes and accidents, mainly in the dark and secluded places. Any future regulations must be created carefully footing the need for environmental conservation with public safety concerns, including preventing crimes & road safety. Local communities can gather to make “dark sky” places where strict lighting regulations are executed to maintain natural darkness. There is need for an encouragement of the individuals to take self-responsibility and use lighting prudently. This includes switch off the light when not needed, utilize energy-efficient light bulbs, and timing outdoor lighting can effectively reduce light pollution.
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Footnotes
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3. Jack Falcon, Alicia Torriglia, Dina Attia, Francoise Vienot, Claude Gronfier, Frncine Behar-Cohen, Christophe Martinsons and David Hicks, Exposure to artificial light at night and the consequences for flora, fauna, and ecosystems 14, 2 FRONTIERS 602796, 1 (2020).
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41. Supra note 13.
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43. Panchtatva foundation V. Ministry of Environment forest and Climate Change, OA. No.1380 of 2024.
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45. Rohit Manohar Joshi vs. The Superintendent of Gardens and Tree Officer, Tree Authority & Ors., PIL. No. 98 of 2023.
46. Anil Mehta V. State of Rajasthan, O. A. No. 102/2022.
47. In re: News Item in The Indian Express dated 28. 04. 2024 titled “7 flamingos spotted near DPS Lake Wetland killed, activists blame CIDCO’s Development Plan” V. Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (H. O. F. F. ), Maharashtra & Ors., O. A. No. 637 /2024.